In the first part of this piece, two weeks ago, the medieval Moroccan traveler Ibn Battuta reaches Erzurum. From here, the narrative then picks up again in southwestern Anatolia, whence this piece continues.

Up Aegean coast, on to Bursa

When he enters Birgi, it is hot. The local sultan, Mehmed, son of Aydın, after whom the city of Aydın is named, is escaping this heat by residing temporarily on the nearby mountain of Bozdağ. Ibn Battuta goes up there to meet him and soon esteems him as "one of the best, most generous and worthiest of sultans." His knowledge and desire for Ibn Battuta to provide him with religious lore also impress him. The sultan houses his guest in a yurt (a guesthouse) on the mountain, but Ibn Battuta is affected by the cold and finds life there difficult, so he is brought back down to Birgi. From there, he travels by Tire to Selçuk, the former Ephesus, which he calls "a large and ancient city venerated by the Greeks." He regards its main mosque as "one of the most magnificent mosques in the world and unequaled in its beauty," adding that this mosque was formerly a Greek church that the Turks converted upon their conquest of the city

His next stop is Izmir, which though then as now is "a large city on the sea coast" dominated by its citadel, was then "mostly in ruins." The ruler, Omar Beg, is also a Ghazi, or holy warrior. Ibn Battuta relates that he "continually" makes Holy War on the Byzantines but gives away what he captures from them on each expedition in "gifts and largesse."

Ibn Battuta then moves from Izmir to Manisa – his stay has been covered in the introduction to the first part of this piece. From Manisa, he travels to Bergama, the ancient Pergamon, which he describes as "a great and formidable fortress on top of a hill." From here, he employs a guide to help him cross the "steep and rugged mountains" to Balıkesir. He finds this city to be "a fine and populous city with pleasant bazaars," although he seems surprised to discover that the main mosque is not only located outside the city but has also been left half-built, without a roof. Nevertheless, this produces a pastoral scene in which the people of Balıkesir "pray in it and hold the Friday service under the shade of the trees."

From Balıkesir, he travels to Bursa, the then-capital of the nascent Ottoman realm. He describes it as "a great and important city with fine bazaars and wide streets, surrounded by gardens and running springs." Ibn Battuta also relates that:

"In its outskirts is a river of exceedingly hot water which flows into a large pond; besides this have been built two hammams, one for men and the other for women. Sick persons seek a cure in this hot pool and come to it from the most distant parts of the country."

If these "outskirts" refer to the suburb known as Çekirge today, then this place has retained its fundamental nature over the last centuries. When I lived in Bursa, I knew the hammam there; it was still a draw for those with health ailments.

Another element of Bursa is the tomb of the city's conqueror, Osman Ghazi, from whom the Ottoman dynasty takes its name. As for the conqueror’s living son and heir, Orhan Ghazi, Ibn Battuta declares that he "is the greatest of the kings of the Turkmens and the richest in wealth, lands and military forces." How he has earned his epithet of Ghazi is clear from Ibn Battuta’s comment that Orhan Ghazi "fights with the infidels" – meaning the Byzantines – "continually and keeps them under siege." When he is not at war, Orhan Ghazi is engaged in keeping the military preparedness of his realm at the top level. His military exploits have recently paid off in his capture of Iznik, where Ibn Battuta heads next.

From Iznik to Sinop

Iznik is on "a rushy lake," as it remains today. Due to its recent capture, it is pretty much uninhabited but is administered by Nilüfer Hatun, Orhan’s wife, until Orhan turns up there. Ibn Battuta deems Nilüfer Hatun "a pious and excellent woman." As for the local produce of Iznik, he is especially taken by the grapes there for their taste, texture and appearance.

From Iznik, he crosses the Sakarya River, stays in Gevye and then passes on to Taraklı. Next, he goes to Göynük and from there to Mudurnu. The weather is now very wintery. In Mudurnu, Ibn Battuta hires what turns out to be an unscrupulous guide to take him on to Kastamonu. Ibn Battuta passes through Bolu and Gerede, which he also calls "one of the coldest towns in the world," but this is surely due to his arrival there in midwinter. Then he spends a night in Safranbolu, noting its citadel.

When he finally reaches Kastamonu, he finds it "one of the largest and finest of cities." He stays there for 40 days. The ruler, Candaroğlu Süleyman Pasha, is the type that Ibn Battuta feels most comfortable with, one to whom "students of religion and devotees have entry to his private circle." This pious ruler treats Ibn Battuta exceptionally well.

From Kastamonu, he travels through Taşköprü before reaching Sinop on the Black Sea, which he describes as "a superb city which combines fortifications with beautification" (IB. 465). In Sinop, Ibn Battuta learns about the prowess of its former ruler, Ghazi Chelebi. He relates that:

"Ghazi Chelebi was a brave and audacious man, endowed by God with a special gift of endurance under water and the power of swimming. He used to make expeditions in war galleys to fight the Greeks and when the fleets met. Everybody was occupied with fighting. He would dive under the water, carrying in his hand an iron tool with which to hole the enemy’s galleys. They would know nothing of what had befallen them until the foundering (of their ships)."

Ibn Battuta’s translator H. A. R. Gibb believes these "Greeks" are more likely to have been Genoese. Regardless of the true identity of the adversary, however, Ghazi Chelebi is presented by Ibn Battuta as the gallant type of hero played by Cüneyt Arkın in the classical era of Turkish action films. As for Sinop, it is from here that Ibn Battuta crosses to the Crimea and out of our account.

Hospitality from rulers, Akhis

Thus ends Ibn Battuta’s trip through Anatolia. It is one in which, in the different principalities he visits, he is subject to Turkish hospitality and generosity. This theme has already been covered in an earlier piece on Gertrude Bell. Here it requires being touched on again to demonstrate its essential immutability over the centuries and because it is an essential element in Ibn Battuta’s journey.

There are constant references to hospitality and generosity in Ibn Battuta’s account. For instance, as mentioned above, Omar Beg of Izmir bestows "immense hospitality" upon him. The Sultan of Birgi, discussed above, is a good example of generosity. Having been a gracious host, upon Ibn Battuta’s departure, he gifts his guest with about half a kilo of gold as well as "a thousand dirhams, a complete set of garments, a horse, and a Greek slave called Mikhail."

With such rulers, he is treated as an honored guest. The ruler of Safranbolu, Ali Beg, inquires about Ibn Battuta’s travels and then has him "sit beside him" in a place of honor for a sumptuous meal. The Sultan of Antalya, unable to rise from his sick bed, greets the Moroccan visitor from it. The duty of hospitality is not neglected if the ruler in question is physically absent. At Bergama, the ruler from his "summer camp ... sent a hospitality gift." Also, in place of the absent ruler, his spouse may step in to provide hospitality. This happens in Kayseri with Taci Hatun, whom Ibn Battuta describes as "one of the most generous and excellent of princesses."

Although, on the whole, Ibn Battuta is treated with great kindness by Turkish rulers, the hospitality he receives can occasionally be, at least in his own estimation, below par. For instance, Ibn Battuta relates that the Sultan of Gerede is "of fine character, but not liberal," by which he is not referring to his political outlook but his lack of generosity. He even actively dislikes the sultan of Balıkesir, Dumurhan, whom he describes as "a worthless person."

Ibn Battuta has another remark concerning princely hospitality: "It is one of the customs in this land that in any part of it where there is no sultan, it is the Akhi who acts as governor" and performs the duty of the hospitable host. Indeed, even where there is a ruler, Ibn Battuta seems to feel even more welcome with an Akhi. An Akhi is the head of a group of pious brethren called "fityan" and is chosen by them. He establishes a lodge, and Akhis are found "in all the lands of the Turkmen (in Anatolia)."

The fityan, in the case of one lodge in Antalya numbering around 200, are made up of guild members, young single men and other men who have devoted themselves to an ascetic life. Ibn Battuta tells us that they bestow their income upon the lodge, which is used to provide guests hospitality. This hospitality makes a deep impression upon Ibn Battuta, who affirms that "nowhere in the world are there to be found any to compare with them in solicitude for strangers and in ardor to serve food and satisfy wants." One specific example of the importance of hospitality to an Akhi is evidenced by Ibn Battuta in Erzurum. The Akhi is Akhi Tuman, who is "of great age." Not wanting to be an imposition on this old man, Ibn Battuta proposes only to stay a single night in his lodge. Tuman, however, "was shocked by our proposal and refused it," regarding it as an insult to his hospitality.

Through this generous hospitality of the Akhis and the Turkish rulers, Ibn Battuta could make such an extensive journey in Anatolia.

Character, regard of Ibn Battuta

As for the personality of Ibn Battuta, Gibb makes the following comment:

"Out of the small details and reflections scattered here and there throughout his narrative, his personality, and temperament are gradually revealed, with such candor and truth to life that at the end the reader knows Ibn Battuta (intimately)."

Indeed, in revealing his flaws, Ibn Battuta makes himself attractive to the modern reader. We see him as sometimes credulous and sensitive to prices, akin to a stereotypical housewife. He reveals when he is helpless and afraid and shows us his dislike of the cold, yet all his human foibles only make him more relatable, while his superhuman achievement is rendered all the more impressive in contrast.

He also has a curious mind and is an essential asset for the best travelers. In Birgi, he demonstrates this by examining a local wonder, "a stone that fell from the sky," which we now would understand to be a meteorite. Ibn Battuta is astonished that this 50-kilogram (110-pound) piece appears unbreakable.

In Kastamonu, Ibn Battuta is fascinated to see an early form of sign language. He relates that:

"We lodged there in there in the hospice of a shaikh called al-Utrush (‘the deaf’) because of his hardness of hearing, and I witnessed an astonishing thing in connection with him, namely that one of his students would write for him with his finger in the air, or sometimes on the ground, and he would understand what he meant and reply."

He notes that "long stories were told to him this way, and he would grasp them."

Ibn Battuta has a remarkable ability to set a dramatic scene. For instance, in the wintery conditions he faces between Göynük and Mudurnu, Ibn Battuta has money extorted from him in the snowy wilderness by some Turkmens, and being completely lost, he fears that he and his companions will die if they have to spend the night outside. The atmosphere he creates is not dissimilar to that of Leo Tolstoy in his short story "Master and Man," although, in Ibn Battuta’s case, all of the party survive due to his riding on ahead for help.

In this case, though, he has difficulty asking for assistance due to his ignorance of Turkish. Ibn Battuta might be faulted for his failure to learn the language, but perhaps more significant is that, in general, he does not need to know it. He is nearly always able to find a fluent Arabic speaker, and his own Arabic scholarship ensures the respect bestowed on him.

It is with the significance of this that I will close this piece. To do so, I return to the historian Albert Hourani whom I quote in the first part, to give an overview of Ibn Battuta’s travels up to and including his sojourn in Türkiye. The rest of them can briefly be covered in the remainder of the quote. Hourani reveals that from Türkiye, Ibn Battuta travels on to "the Caucasus, and southern Russia; to India, the Maldive Islands and China; then back to his native Maghrib, and from there to Andalus and the Sahara" before finally returning to Tangier in Morocco where he dictates his travels to Ibn Jazzy and dies in 1377 or thereabouts.

Hourani also notes in connection with Ibn Battuta the widespread "common culture expressed in the Arabic language" through the lands in which he travels. This does not mean simply Arabic-speaking lands, but those in which Hourani calls "the prestige attached to the exponents of the religious learning in the Arabic tongue," such as Ibn Battuta, are found. These are the lands of Islam, of which Anatolia forms a part and reveal a common cosmopolitan sense of brotherhood that transcends the borders of specific kingdoms or principalities. This reflects what Gibb elsewhere notes of Islam: It "possesses a magnificent tradition of interracial understanding and cooperation." Nowhere is this more evident than in the Hajj, with which the first part of this piece opens and which Ibn Battuta performs several times. In the 20th century, this aspect of the Hajj particularly struck the American civil rights leader Malcolm X, whose life has been scarred by racism. Of the Hajj, Malcolm X notes that:

"There were tens of thousands of pilgrims from all over the world. They were of all colors, from blue-eyed blondes to black-skinned Africans. But they were all participating in the same ritual, displaying a spirit of unity and brotherhood that my experiences in America had led me to believe could never exist."

This Islamic "spirit of unity" between the Moroccan traveler and his Turkish hosts marks his travelogue in what is now Türkiye. It explains how he could travel so extensively and with such relative ease in this land.